Logic is Dead

<table style="border: 1px solid black;background-color: #accbff;"><tr><td style="color:#000000;font-size: 1.1em;padding:10px 10px 0px 10px;"><strong>Appeal to Consequences of a Belief</strong></td></tr><tr><td style="color:#000000;font-size: 1em;padding:10px 10px 0px 10px;"><strong>Concluding that an idea or proposition is true or false because the consequences of it being true or false are desirable or undesirable.</strong></td></tr><tr><td style="color:#000000;font-size: .9em;padding:10px 10px 10px 10px;"><em>If unicorns aren't real, then I would be very disappointed. I don't want to be disappointed, so I believe they exist.</em></td></tr></table>

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<table style="border: 1px solid black;background-color: #accbff;"><tr><td style="color:#000000;font-size: 1.1em;padding:10px 10px 0px 10px;"><strong>Appeal to Fear</strong></td></tr><tr><td style="color:#000000;font-size: 1em;padding:10px 10px 0px 10px;"><strong>An argument is made by increasing fear and prejudice towards the opposing side.</strong></td></tr><tr><td style="color:#000000;font-size: .9em;padding:10px 10px 10px 10px;"><em>If we don’t deport all illegal aliens, terrorism will destroy our country. Therefore, we need to deport all illegal aliens.</em></td></tr></table>

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<table style="border: 1px solid black;background-color: #accbff;"><tr><td style="color:#000000;font-size: 1.1em;padding:10px 10px 0px 10px;"><strong>Appeal to Flattery</strong></td></tr><tr><td style="color:#000000;font-size: 1em;padding:10px 10px 0px 10px;"><strong>Using flattery on those to whom you want to accept your argument.</strong></td></tr><tr><td style="color:#000000;font-size: .9em;padding:10px 10px 10px 10px;"><em>Intelligent readers will always recognize a fallacy when they see one.</em></td></tr></table>

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<table style="border: 1px solid black;background-color: #accbff;"><tr><td style="color:#000000;font-size: 1.1em;padding:10px 10px 0px 10px;"><strong>Appeal to Nature</strong></td></tr><tr><td style="color:#000000;font-size: 1em;padding:10px 10px 0px 10px;"><strong>Making your claim seem more true by suggesting that "natural" is always better than "unnatural".</strong></td></tr><tr><td style="color:#000000;font-size: .9em;padding:10px 10px 10px 10px;"><em>Natural herbs and ointments are better than man-made pharmaceuticals. </em></td></tr></table>

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<table style="border: 1px solid black;background-color: #accbff;"><tr><td style="color:#000000;font-size: 1.1em;padding:10px 10px 0px 10px;"><strong>Appeal to Patriotism</strong></td></tr><tr><td style="color:#000000;font-size: 1em;padding:10px 10px 0px 10px;"><strong>When truth is determined by what makes one feel and look patriotic.</strong></td></tr><tr><td style="color:#000000;font-size: .9em;padding:10px 10px 10px 10px;"><em>This new bill is the law of the land. It’s unpatriotic to think that it’s a bad bill.</em></td></tr></table>

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<table style="border: 1px solid black;background-color: #accbff;"><tr><td style="color:#000000;font-size: 1.1em;padding:10px 10px 0px 10px;"><strong>Appeal to Pity</strong></td></tr><tr><td style="color:#000000;font-size: 1em;padding:10px 10px 0px 10px;"><strong>The attempt to distract from the truth of the conclusion by the use of pity.</strong></td></tr><tr><td style="color:#000000;font-size: .9em;padding:10px 10px 10px 10px;"><em>Brittany doesn't deserve the bad press. Hasn't she already been through enough?</em></td></tr></table>

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<table style="border: 1px solid black;background-color: #accbff;"><tr><td style="color:#000000;font-size: 1.1em;padding:10px 10px 0px 10px;"><strong>Appeal to Ridicule</strong></td></tr><tr><td style="color:#000000;font-size: 1em;padding:10px 10px 0px 10px;"><strong>Presenting the argument in such a way that makes the argument look ridiculous, usually by misrepresenting the argument or the use of exaggeration.</strong></td></tr><tr><td style="color:#000000;font-size: .9em;padding:10px 10px 10px 10px;"><em>Believing in climate change is like believing in the Tooth Fairy.</em></td></tr></table>

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<table style="border: 1px solid black;background-color: #accbff;"><tr><td style="color:#000000;font-size: 1.1em;padding:10px 10px 0px 10px;"><strong>Appeal to Spite</strong></td></tr><tr><td style="color:#000000;font-size: 1em;padding:10px 10px 0px 10px;"><strong>Dismissing a claim by appealing to personal bias against the claimant.</strong></td></tr><tr><td style="color:#000000;font-size: .9em;padding:10px 10px 10px 10px;"><em>I'm not going to vote for him, because he didn't vote for me last year.</em></td></tr></table>

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<table style="border: 1px solid black;background-color: #accbff;"><tr><td style="color:#000000;font-size: 1.1em;padding:10px 10px 0px 10px;"><strong>Appeal to Wishful Thinking</strong></td></tr><tr><td style="color:#000000;font-size: 1em;padding:10px 10px 0px 10px;"><strong>Suggesting a claim is true or false because you hope it is.</strong></td></tr><tr><td style="color:#000000;font-size: .9em;padding:10px 10px 10px 10px;"><em>The president wouldn't lie. He's a good person who would never do that.</em></td></tr></table>

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<table style="border: 1px solid black;background-color: #accbff;"><tr><td style="color:#000000;font-size: 1.1em;padding:10px 10px 0px 10px;"><strong>Pandering</strong></td></tr><tr><td style="color:#000000;font-size: 1em;padding:10px 10px 0px 10px;"><strong>The act of expressing one's views in accordance with the likes of a group to which one is attempting to appeal.</strong></td></tr><tr><td style="color:#000000;font-size: .9em;padding:10px 10px 10px 10px;"><em>If you give me a chance by voting for me, the result for you will be amazing.</em></td></tr></table>

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<table style="border: 1px solid black;background-color: #accbff;"><tr><td style="color:#000000;font-size: 1.1em;padding:10px 10px 0px 10px;"><strong>Appeal to Anonymous Authority</strong></td></tr><tr><td style="color:#000000;font-size: 1em;padding:10px 10px 0px 10px;"><strong>Using evidence from an unnamed expert or group to claim something is true.</strong></td></tr><tr><td style="color:#000000;font-size: .9em;padding:10px 10px 10px 10px;"><em>They say that there are more than two million needless operations conducted every year.</em></td></tr></table>

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<table style="border: 1px solid black;background-color: #accbff;"><tr><td style="color:#000000;font-size: 1.1em;padding:10px 10px 0px 10px;"><strong>Appeal to Authority</strong></td></tr><tr><td style="color:#000000;font-size: 1em;padding:10px 10px 0px 10px;"><strong>Using an authority as evidence in your argument when the authority is not really an authority on the facts relevant to the argument.</strong></td></tr><tr><td style="color:#000000;font-size: .9em;padding:10px 10px 10px 10px;"><em>Dr. Smith says that we have a man on Mars in 20 years. He would know, he's a brain surgeon.</em></td></tr></table>

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<table style="border: 1px solid black;background-color: #accbff;"><tr><td style="color:#000000;font-size: 1.1em;padding:10px 10px 0px 10px;"><strong>Appeal to Ignorance</strong></td></tr><tr><td style="color:#000000;font-size: 1em;padding:10px 10px 0px 10px;"><strong>A conclusion based primarily on lack of evidence to the contrary.</strong></td></tr><tr><td style="color:#000000;font-size: .9em;padding:10px 10px 10px 10px;"><em>No one has shown that psychic ability exists. Therefore it does not exist.</em></td></tr></table>

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<table style="border: 1px solid black;background-color: #accbff;"><tr><td style="color:#000000;font-size: 1.1em;padding:10px 10px 0px 10px;"><strong>Appeal to Incredulity</strong></td></tr><tr><td style="color:#000000;font-size: 1em;padding:10px 10px 0px 10px;"><strong>Because a claim is difficult to understand or is unbelievable, it must not be true.</strong></td></tr><tr><td style="color:#000000;font-size: .9em;padding:10px 10px 10px 10px;"><em>I don't believe man could have evolved from a single celled organism.</em></td></tr></table>

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<table style="border: 1px solid black;background-color: #accbff;"><tr><td style="color:#000000;font-size: 1.1em;padding:10px 10px 0px 10px;"><strong>Appeal to Money</strong></td></tr><tr><td style="color:#000000;font-size: 1em;padding:10px 10px 0px 10px;"><strong>Someone or something is better because they are more wealthy or more expensive.</strong></td></tr><tr><td style="color:#000000;font-size: .9em;padding:10px 10px 10px 10px;"><em>My car is better than yours, because it cost more.</em></td></tr></table>

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<table style="border: 1px solid black;background-color: #accbff;"><tr><td style="color:#000000;font-size: 1.1em;padding:10px 10px 0px 10px;"><strong>Appeal to Novelty</strong></td></tr><tr><td style="color:#000000;font-size: 1em;padding:10px 10px 0px 10px;"><strong>Assuming something is better because it is new or newer.</strong></td></tr><tr><td style="color:#000000;font-size: .9em;padding:10px 10px 10px 10px;"><em>This new phone is better than the old model.</em></td></tr></table>

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<table style="border: 1px solid black;background-color: #accbff;"><tr><td style="color:#000000;font-size: 1.1em;padding:10px 10px 0px 10px;"><strong>Appeal to Popular Belief</strong></td></tr><tr><td style="color:#000000;font-size: 1em;padding:10px 10px 0px 10px;"><strong>Using the popularity of a premise or proposition as evidence for its truthfulness.</strong></td></tr><tr><td style="color:#000000;font-size: .9em;padding:10px 10px 10px 10px;"><em>45 percent of people believe in astrology. Therefore there must be some truth to astrology.</em></td></tr></table>

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<table style="border: 1px solid black;background-color: #accbff;"><tr><td style="color:#000000;font-size: 1.1em;padding:10px 10px 0px 10px;"><strong>Appeal to Probability</strong></td></tr><tr><td style="color:#000000;font-size: 1em;padding:10px 10px 0px 10px;"><strong>Assuming because something could happen, it will inevitably happen.</strong></td></tr><tr><td style="color:#000000;font-size: .9em;padding:10px 10px 10px 10px;"><em>There are so many hackers on the internet, you will likely be hacked at some point.</em></td></tr></table>

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<table style="border: 1px solid black;background-color: #accbff;"><tr><td style="color:#000000;font-size: 1.1em;padding:10px 10px 0px 10px;"><strong>Appeal to Tradition</strong></td></tr><tr><td style="color:#000000;font-size: 1em;padding:10px 10px 0px 10px;"><strong>Using historical preferences as evidence that the historical preference is correct.</strong></td></tr><tr><td style="color:#000000;font-size: .9em;padding:10px 10px 10px 10px;"><em>Marriage has traditionally been between a man and a woman; therefore, gay marriage should not be allowed.</em></td></tr></table>

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<table style="border: 1px solid black;background-color: #accbff;"><tr><td style="color:#000000;font-size: 1.1em;padding:10px 10px 0px 10px;"><strong>Argument by Repetition</strong></td></tr><tr><td style="color:#000000;font-size: 1em;padding:10px 10px 0px 10px;"><strong>Repeating an argument or a premise over and over again in place of better supporting evidence.</strong></td></tr><tr><td style="color:#000000;font-size: .9em;padding:10px 10px 10px 10px;"><em>"The most brilliant propagandist technique will yield no success unless one fundamental principle is borne in mind constantly and with unflagging attention. It must confine itself to a few points and repeat them over and over. Here, as so often in this world, persistence is the first and most important requirement for success."</em></td></tr></table>

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<table style="border: 1px solid black;background-color: #accbff;"><tr><td style="color:#000000;font-size: 1.1em;padding:10px 10px 0px 10px;"><strong>Argument from Silence</strong></td></tr><tr><td style="color:#000000;font-size: 1em;padding:10px 10px 0px 10px;"><strong>Drawing a conclusion based on the silence of the opponent, when the opponent is refusing to give evidence for any reason.</strong></td></tr><tr><td style="color:#000000;font-size: .9em;padding:10px 10px 10px 10px;"><em>A: "Where are my car keys?" B: (silence) A: "I KNEW you took them!"</em></td></tr></table>

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<table style="border: 1px solid black;background-color: #accbff;"><tr><td style="color:#000000;font-size: 1.1em;padding:10px 10px 0px 10px;"><strong>Projection</strong></td></tr><tr><td style="color:#000000;font-size: 1em;padding:10px 10px 0px 10px;"><strong>Defending oneself against their own unconscious impulses or qualities by denying their existence in themselves while attributing them to others.</strong></td></tr><tr><td style="color:#000000;font-size: .9em;padding:10px 10px 10px 10px;"><em>An adulterous husband who believes that his wife is being unfaithful.</em></td></tr></table>

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<table style="border: 1px solid black;background-color: #accbff;"><tr><td style="color:#000000;font-size: 1.1em;padding:10px 10px 0px 10px;"><strong>Anecdotal Evidence</strong></td></tr><tr><td style="color:#000000;font-size: 1em;padding:10px 10px 0px 10px;"><strong>Using personal experience or an isolated example as sound evidence.</strong></td></tr><tr><td style="color:#000000;font-size: .9em;padding:10px 10px 10px 10px;"><em>I will not die from lung cancer if I continue to smoke. My grandfather smoked all his life, and he lived until he was 90.</em></td></tr></table>

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<table style="border: 1px solid black;background-color: #accbff;"><tr><td style="color:#000000;font-size: 1.1em;padding:10px 10px 0px 10px;"><strong>Composition</strong></td></tr><tr><td style="color:#000000;font-size: 1em;padding:10px 10px 0px 10px;"><strong>What is true of the parts must also be true of the whole.</strong></td></tr><tr><td style="color:#000000;font-size: .9em;padding:10px 10px 10px 10px;"><em>The elements sodium and chloride are poisonous. Therefore, sodium chloride is also poisonous.</em></td></tr></table>

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<table style="border: 1px solid black;background-color: #accbff;"><tr><td style="color:#000000;font-size: 1.1em;padding:10px 10px 0px 10px;"><strong>Division</strong></td></tr><tr><td style="color:#000000;font-size: 1em;padding:10px 10px 0px 10px;"><strong>What is true of the whole must also be true of the parts.</strong></td></tr><tr><td style="color:#000000;font-size: .9em;padding:10px 10px 10px 10px;"><em>Sodium chloride may be safely eaten. Therefore its constituent elements, sodium and chloride, may be safely eaten.</em></td></tr></table>

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<table style="border: 1px solid black;background-color: #accbff;"><tr><td style="color:#000000;font-size: 1.1em;padding:10px 10px 0px 10px;"><strong>Gambler's Fallacy</strong></td></tr><tr><td style="color:#000000;font-size: 1em;padding:10px 10px 0px 10px;"><strong>Reasoning that, in a situation that is pure random chance, the outcome can be affected by previous outcomes.</strong></td></tr><tr><td style="color:#000000;font-size: .9em;padding:10px 10px 10px 10px;"><em>I have flipped heads ten times in a row. Odds are that the next flip has to be tails.</em></td></tr></table>

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<table style="border: 1px solid black;background-color: #accbff;"><tr><td style="color:#000000;font-size: 1.1em;padding:10px 10px 0px 10px;"><strong>Hasty Generalization</strong></td></tr><tr><td style="color:#000000;font-size: 1em;padding:10px 10px 0px 10px;"><strong>Drawing a conclusion based on a small sample size, rather than looking at statistics that are much more in line with the typical or average situation.</strong></td></tr><tr><td style="color:#000000;font-size: .9em;padding:10px 10px 10px 10px;"><em>Four out of five dentists recommend this toothpaste. Therefore it must be great toothpaste.</em></td></tr></table>

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<table style="border: 1px solid black;background-color: #accbff;"><tr><td style="color:#000000;font-size: 1.1em;padding:10px 10px 0px 10px;"><strong>Inconsistency</strong></td></tr><tr><td style="color:#000000;font-size: 1em;padding:10px 10px 0px 10px;"><strong>Two or more propositions are asserted that cannot both possibly be true.</strong></td></tr><tr><td style="color:#000000;font-size: .9em;padding:10px 10px 10px 10px;"><em>Nobody goes there anymore. It's too crowded.</em></td></tr></table>

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<table style="border: 1px solid black;background-color: #accbff;"><tr><td style="color:#000000;font-size: 1.1em;padding:10px 10px 0px 10px;"><strong>Jumping to Conclusions</strong></td></tr><tr><td style="color:#000000;font-size: 1em;padding:10px 10px 0px 10px;"><strong>Drawing a conclusion without taking the needed time to reason through the argument.</strong></td></tr><tr><td style="color:#000000;font-size: .9em;padding:10px 10px 10px 10px;"><em>The house looks great on the outside. It must look great on the inside too. Let's buy it!</em></td></tr></table>

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<table style="border: 1px solid black;background-color: #accbff;"><tr><td style="color:#000000;font-size: 1.1em;padding:10px 10px 0px 10px;"><strong>Middle Ground</strong></td></tr><tr><td style="color:#000000;font-size: 1em;padding:10px 10px 0px 10px;"><strong>Asserting that given any two positions, there exists a compromise between them that must be correct.</strong></td></tr><tr><td style="color:#000000;font-size: .9em;padding:10px 10px 10px 10px;"><em>Congressman A wants to cut taxes by 50 percent. Congressman B wants to raise taxes by 10 percent. The obvious thing to do is to compromise and cut taxes by 20 percent.</em></td></tr></table>

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<table style="border: 1px solid black;background-color: #accbff;"><tr><td style="color:#000000;font-size: 1.1em;padding:10px 10px 0px 10px;"><strong>Non Sequitur</strong></td></tr><tr><td style="color:#000000;font-size: 1em;padding:10px 10px 0px 10px;"><strong>When the conclusion does not follow from the premises.</strong></td></tr><tr><td style="color:#000000;font-size: .9em;padding:10px 10px 10px 10px;"><em>People generally like to walk on the beach. Beaches have sand. Therefore, having sand floors in homes would be a great idea!</em></td></tr></table>

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<table style="border: 1px solid black;background-color: #accbff;"><tr><td style="color:#000000;font-size: 1.1em;padding:10px 10px 0px 10px;"><strong>Perfectionist Fallacy</strong></td></tr><tr><td style="color:#000000;font-size: 1em;padding:10px 10px 0px 10px;"><strong>Assuming that the only option is a perfect solution, then rejecting anything that is not perfect.</strong></td></tr><tr><td style="color:#000000;font-size: .9em;padding:10px 10px 10px 10px;"><em>What’s the point of anti-smoking ads? People are still going to smoke.</em></td></tr></table>

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<table style="border: 1px solid black;background-color: #accbff;"><tr><td style="color:#000000;font-size: 1.1em;padding:10px 10px 0px 10px;"><strong>Relativist Fallacy</strong></td></tr><tr><td style="color:#000000;font-size: 1em;padding:10px 10px 0px 10px;"><strong>Claiming something is true for one person, but not for someone else when, in fact, it is true for everyone (objective) as demonstrated by empirical evidence.</strong></td></tr><tr><td style="color:#000000;font-size: .9em;padding:10px 10px 10px 10px;"><em>A: You realize that smoking is unhealthy. B: Smoking is unhealthy for most people, but it is not true for me.</em></td></tr></table>

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<table style="border: 1px solid black;background-color: #accbff;"><tr><td style="color:#000000;font-size: 1.1em;padding:10px 10px 0px 10px;"><strong>Spotlight</strong></td></tr><tr><td style="color:#000000;font-size: 1em;padding:10px 10px 0px 10px;"><strong>Assuming that the media’s coverage of a certain class or category is representative of the class or category in whole.</strong></td></tr><tr><td style="color:#000000;font-size: .9em;padding:10px 10px 10px 10px;"><em>We hear about crimes every day in the media. It's not safe to walk the streets anymore.</em></td></tr></table>

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<table style="border: 1px solid black;background-color: #accbff;"><tr><td style="color:#000000;font-size: 1.1em;padding:10px 10px 0px 10px;"><strong>Sweeping Generalization</strong></td></tr><tr><td style="color:#000000;font-size: 1em;padding:10px 10px 0px 10px;"><strong>Applying a general rule to all situations, when clearly there are exceptions to the rule.</strong></td></tr><tr><td style="color:#000000;font-size: .9em;padding:10px 10px 10px 10px;"><em>All pit bulls are dangerous because they were bred to be killers.</em></td></tr></table>

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<table style="border: 1px solid black;background-color: #accbff;"><tr><td style="color:#000000;font-size: 1.1em;padding:10px 10px 0px 10px;"><strong>Undistributed Middle</strong></td></tr><tr><td style="color:#000000;font-size: 1em;padding:10px 10px 0px 10px;"><strong>Because two things share a property, they must be the same.</strong></td></tr><tr><td style="color:#000000;font-size: .9em;padding:10px 10px 10px 10px;"><em>All lions are mammals. All cats are mammals.Therefore, all lions are cats. Likewise, all ghosts are imaginary. All unicorns are imaginary. Therefore, all ghosts are unicorns.</em></td></tr></table>

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<table style="border: 1px solid black;background-color: #accbff;"><tr><td style="color:#000000;font-size: 1.1em;padding:10px 10px 0px 10px;"><strong>Affirming a Disjunct</strong></td></tr><tr><td style="color:#000000;font-size: 1em;padding:10px 10px 0px 10px;"><strong>Making the false assumption that when presented with an either/or possibility, that if one of the options is true that the other one must be false.</strong></td></tr><tr><td style="color:#000000;font-size: .9em;padding:10px 10px 10px 10px;"><em>We must either build the wall, or illegal immigrants will come into the country. We have built the wall, therefore no illegal immigrants will come into the country.</em></td></tr></table>

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<table style="border: 1px solid black;background-color: #accbff;"><tr><td style="color:#000000;font-size: 1.1em;padding:10px 10px 0px 10px;"><strong>Affirming the Consequent</strong></td></tr><tr><td style="color:#000000;font-size: 1em;padding:10px 10px 0px 10px;"><strong>If the conclusion is true, then the premise is true as a result.</strong></td></tr><tr><td style="color:#000000;font-size: .9em;padding:10px 10px 10px 10px;"><em>If my taxes are lowered, I will have more money in my bank account. I have more money in my bank account, therefore my taxes must have been lowered.</em></td></tr></table>

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<table style="border: 1px solid black;background-color: #accbff;"><tr><td style="color:#000000;font-size: 1.1em;padding:10px 10px 0px 10px;"><strong>Ambiguity</strong></td></tr><tr><td style="color:#000000;font-size: 1em;padding:10px 10px 0px 10px;"><strong>When an unclear phrase with multiple definitions is used within the argument.</strong></td></tr><tr><td style="color:#000000;font-size: .9em;padding:10px 10px 10px 10px;"><em>It is said that we have a good understanding of our universe. Therefore, we know exactly how it began and exactly when.</em></td></tr></table>

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<table style="border: 1px solid black;background-color: #accbff;"><tr><td style="color:#000000;font-size: 1.1em;padding:10px 10px 0px 10px;"><strong>Circular Logic</strong></td></tr><tr><td style="color:#000000;font-size: 1em;padding:10px 10px 0px 10px;"><strong>A conclusion is derived from the premise, which is supported by the conclusion.</strong></td></tr><tr><td style="color:#000000;font-size: .9em;padding:10px 10px 10px 10px;"><em>The president is a great communicator, because he had the ability to talk effectively to the people.</em></td></tr></table>

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<table style="border: 1px solid black;background-color: #accbff;"><tr><td style="color:#000000;font-size: 1.1em;padding:10px 10px 0px 10px;"><strong>Cum Hoc Ergo Propter Hoc</strong></td></tr><tr><td style="color:#000000;font-size: 1em;padding:10px 10px 0px 10px;"><strong>Claiming that because two events occur together, they must be causally related.</strong></td></tr><tr><td style="color:#000000;font-size: .9em;padding:10px 10px 10px 10px;"><em>Every time I go to sleep, the sun goes down. Therefore, my going to sleep causes the sun to set.</em></td></tr></table>

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<table style="border: 1px solid black;background-color: #accbff;"><tr><td style="color:#000000;font-size: 1.1em;padding:10px 10px 0px 10px;"><strong>Denying the Antecedent</strong></td></tr><tr><td style="color:#000000;font-size: 1em;padding:10px 10px 0px 10px;"><strong>Inferring that the inverse of a statement is also true.</strong></td></tr><tr><td style="color:#000000;font-size: .9em;padding:10px 10px 10px 10px;"><em>If it quacks, then it's a duck. It doesn't quack, therefore it isn't a duck.</em></td></tr></table>

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<table style="border: 1px solid black;background-color: #accbff;"><tr><td style="color:#000000;font-size: 1.1em;padding:10px 10px 0px 10px;"><strong>Ignoring a Common Cause</strong></td></tr><tr><td style="color:#000000;font-size: 1em;padding:10px 10px 0px 10px;"><strong>Claiming one event must have caused the second event, when a third event is the cause of both.</strong></td></tr><tr><td style="color:#000000;font-size: .9em;padding:10px 10px 10px 10px;"><em>I must be feeling nauseous because I have a headache.</em></td></tr></table>

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<table style="border: 1px solid black;background-color: #accbff;"><tr><td style="color:#000000;font-size: 1.1em;padding:10px 10px 0px 10px;"><strong>Post Hoc Ergo Propter Hoc</strong></td></tr><tr><td style="color:#000000;font-size: 1em;padding:10px 10px 0px 10px;"><strong>Because a second event followed the first event, the second event was also caused by the first event.</strong></td></tr><tr><td style="color:#000000;font-size: .9em;padding:10px 10px 10px 10px;"><em>Since the election of the president a month ago, the stock market has dropped 10%. Therefore the new president has already destroyed the economy.</em></td></tr></table>

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<table style="border: 1px solid black;background-color: #accbff;"><tr><td style="color:#000000;font-size: 1.1em;padding:10px 10px 0px 10px;"><strong>Two Wrongs Make a Right</strong></td></tr><tr><td style="color:#000000;font-size: 1em;padding:10px 10px 0px 10px;"><strong>Assuming that if one wrong is committed, another wrong will cancel it out.</strong></td></tr><tr><td style="color:#000000;font-size: .9em;padding:10px 10px 10px 10px;"><em>Sure, the president cheated on his taxes. But everyone cheats on their taxes.</em></td></tr></table>

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<table style="border: 1px solid black;background-color: #accbff;"><tr><td style="color:#000000;font-size: 1.1em;padding:10px 10px 0px 10px;"><strong>Ad Hoc Rescue</strong></td></tr><tr><td style="color:#000000;font-size: 1em;padding:10px 10px 0px 10px;"><strong>Arguing for a belief by repeatedly revising the argument to explain problems with the premise.</strong></td></tr><tr><td style="color:#000000;font-size: .9em;padding:10px 10px 10px 10px;"><em>A: I know that the president will repeal Obamacare. B: But congress has to repeal Obamacare, not the president. A: Well, the president will work with congress to repeal Obamacare.</em></td></tr></table>

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<table style="border: 1px solid black;background-color: #accbff;"><tr><td style="color:#000000;font-size: 1.1em;padding:10px 10px 0px 10px;"><strong>Begging the Question</strong></td></tr><tr><td style="color:#000000;font-size: 1em;padding:10px 10px 0px 10px;"><strong>A form of argument where the conclusion is assumed in one of the premises.</strong></td></tr><tr><td style="color:#000000;font-size: .9em;padding:10px 10px 10px 10px;"><em>Psychic abilities are real, because I have experienced what can only be described as a psychic event.</em></td></tr></table>

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<table style="border: 1px solid black;background-color: #accbff;"><tr><td style="color:#000000;font-size: 1.1em;padding:10px 10px 0px 10px;"><strong>Biased Generalizing</strong></td></tr><tr><td style="color:#000000;font-size: 1em;padding:10px 10px 0px 10px;"><strong>Generalizing from an unrepresentative sample to increase the strength of your argument.</strong></td></tr><tr><td style="color:#000000;font-size: .9em;padding:10px 10px 10px 10px;"><em>Everyone in my science class at MIT wants the government to fund the Mars colonization project. Therefore the government should fund the project because everyone wants them to.</em></td></tr></table>

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<table style="border: 1px solid black;background-color: #accbff;"><tr><td style="color:#000000;font-size: 1.1em;padding:10px 10px 0px 10px;"><strong>Confirmation Bias</strong></td></tr><tr><td style="color:#000000;font-size: 1em;padding:10px 10px 0px 10px;"><strong>Cherry-picking evidence that supports your idea while ignoring contradicting evidence.</strong></td></tr><tr><td style="color:#000000;font-size: .9em;padding:10px 10px 10px 10px;"><em>There are two articles in scientific journals that confirm that global warming is a myth.</em></td></tr></table>

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<table style="border: 1px solid black;background-color: #accbff;"><tr><td style="color:#000000;font-size: 1.1em;padding:10px 10px 0px 10px;"><strong>False Dilemma</strong></td></tr><tr><td style="color:#000000;font-size: 1em;padding:10px 10px 0px 10px;"><strong>Presenting two opposing options as the only two possible options, while omitting other options.</strong></td></tr><tr><td style="color:#000000;font-size: .9em;padding:10px 10px 10px 10px;"><em>We must either fund the Mars colonization now, or we will never get to Mars.</em></td></tr></table>

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<table style="border: 1px solid black;background-color: #accbff;"><tr><td style="color:#000000;font-size: 1.1em;padding:10px 10px 0px 10px;"><strong>Lie</strong></td></tr><tr><td style="color:#000000;font-size: 1em;padding:10px 10px 0px 10px;"><strong>An outright untruth repeated knowingly as a fact.</strong></td></tr><tr><td style="color:#000000;font-size: .9em;padding:10px 10px 10px 10px;"><em>Cigarette smoking is no more addictive than coffee, tea or Twinkies.</em></td></tr></table>

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<table style="border: 1px solid black;background-color: #accbff;"><tr><td style="color:#000000;font-size: 1.1em;padding:10px 10px 0px 10px;"><strong>Misleading Vividness</strong></td></tr><tr><td style="color:#000000;font-size: 1em;padding:10px 10px 0px 10px;"><strong> A very small number of particularly dramatic events are taken to outweigh a significant amount of statistical evidence.</strong></td></tr><tr><td style="color:#000000;font-size: .9em;padding:10px 10px 10px 10px;"><em>It snowed last night, and it's only September. Global warming must be a myth.</em></td></tr></table>

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<table style="border: 1px solid black;background-color: #accbff;"><tr><td style="color:#000000;font-size: 1.1em;padding:10px 10px 0px 10px;"><strong>Moving the Goalposts</strong></td></tr><tr><td style="color:#000000;font-size: 1em;padding:10px 10px 0px 10px;"><strong>Demanding that an opponent address a different topic after the first claim has been proven true. Or changing a claim after it was proven false.</strong></td></tr><tr><td style="color:#000000;font-size: .9em;padding:10px 10px 10px 10px;"><em>John claimed to be psychic. Under scientific conditions, he was not able to prove his ability to be psychic. John explained that the conditions were disabling his abilities.</em></td></tr></table>

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<table style="border: 1px solid black;background-color: #accbff;"><tr><td style="color:#000000;font-size: 1.1em;padding:10px 10px 0px 10px;"><strong>No True Scotsman</strong></td></tr><tr><td style="color:#000000;font-size: 1em;padding:10px 10px 0px 10px;"><strong>When a universal claim is refuted, rather than conceding the point or meaningfully revising the claim, the claim is altered by going from universal to specific, and failing to give any objective criteria for the specificity.</strong></td></tr><tr><td style="color:#000000;font-size: .9em;padding:10px 10px 10px 10px;"><em>A: All members of my group are model citizens. B: Then why are some members in jail? A: Those are not true members of my group.</em></td></tr></table>

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<table style="border: 1px solid black;background-color: #accbff;"><tr><td style="color:#000000;font-size: 1.1em;padding:10px 10px 0px 10px;"><strong>Quoting Out of Context</strong></td></tr><tr><td style="color:#000000;font-size: 1em;padding:10px 10px 0px 10px;"><strong>Removing a passage from its surrounding text in such a way as to distort its meaning. </strong></td></tr><tr><td style="color:#000000;font-size: .9em;padding:10px 10px 10px 10px;"><em>Review: "a small masterpiece". Actual statement: “The credit sequence, with its jumpy frames and near-subliminal flashes of psychoparaphernalia, is a small masterpiece of dementia.”</em></td></tr></table>

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<table style="border: 1px solid black;background-color: #accbff;"><tr><td style="color:#000000;font-size: 1.1em;padding:10px 10px 0px 10px;"><strong>Red Herring</strong></td></tr><tr><td style="color:#000000;font-size: 1em;padding:10px 10px 0px 10px;"><strong>An irrelevant topic is presented in order to divert attention from the original issue.</strong></td></tr><tr><td style="color:#000000;font-size: .9em;padding:10px 10px 10px 10px;"><em>The president cheated on his taxes. So what? Some previous presidents have cheated on their spouses.</em></td></tr></table>

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<table style="border: 1px solid black;background-color: #accbff;"><tr><td style="color:#000000;font-size: 1.1em;padding:10px 10px 0px 10px;"><strong>Slippery Slope</strong></td></tr><tr><td style="color:#000000;font-size: 1em;padding:10px 10px 0px 10px;"><strong>Asserting that a relatively insignificant first event will inevitably lead to a more significant event.</strong></td></tr><tr><td style="color:#000000;font-size: .9em;padding:10px 10px 10px 10px;"><em>If we allow gay marriage, the next thing you know people will want to start marrying their pets.</em></td></tr></table>

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<table style="border: 1px solid black;background-color: #accbff;"><tr><td style="color:#000000;font-size: 1.1em;padding:10px 10px 0px 10px;"><strong>Suppressed Evidence</strong></td></tr><tr><td style="color:#000000;font-size: 1em;padding:10px 10px 0px 10px;"><strong>Only select evidence is presented in order to persuade the audience to accept a position, and evidence that would go against the position is withheld.</strong></td></tr><tr><td style="color:#000000;font-size: .9em;padding:10px 10px 10px 10px;"><em>The president is an honest and moral person. The president gives 5% of his income to charities, goes to church on Sundays, and does not drink alcohol.</em></td></tr></table>

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<table style="border: 1px solid black;background-color: #accbff;"><tr><td style="color:#000000;font-size: 1.1em;padding:10px 10px 0px 10px;"><strong>Unfalsifiability</strong></td></tr><tr><td style="color:#000000;font-size: 1em;padding:10px 10px 0px 10px;"><strong>Offering a claim that cannot be proven false.</strong></td></tr><tr><td style="color:#000000;font-size: .9em;padding:10px 10px 10px 10px;"><em>I knew the would president veto the bill, because I have psychic powers.</em></td></tr></table>

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<table style="border: 1px solid black;background-color: #accbff;"><tr><td style="color:#000000;font-size: 1.1em;padding:10px 10px 0px 10px;"><strong>Backtracking</strong></td></tr><tr><td style="color:#000000;font-size: 1em;padding:10px 10px 0px 10px;"><strong>To change your intentions, so that you become less willing or less likely to do something that you said you would do.</strong></td></tr><tr><td style="color:#000000;font-size: .9em;padding:10px 10px 10px 10px;"><em>“I don’t want to hurt the Clintons, I really don’t, She went through a lot and suffered greatly in many different ways.”</em></td></tr></table>

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<table style="border: 1px solid black;background-color: #accbff;"><tr><td style="color:#000000;font-size: 1.1em;padding:10px 10px 0px 10px;"><strong>Cognitive Dissonance</strong></td></tr><tr><td style="color:#000000;font-size: 1em;padding:10px 10px 0px 10px;"><strong>The mental stress or discomfort experienced by an individual who holds two or more contradictory beliefs, ideas, or values at the same time</strong></td></tr><tr><td style="color:#000000;font-size: .9em;padding:10px 10px 10px 10px;"><em>An environmentally responsible individual who purchases a car that does not get very good gas mileage.</em></td></tr></table>

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<table style="border: 1px solid black;background-color: #accbff;"><tr><td style="color:#000000;font-size: 1.1em;padding:10px 10px 0px 10px;"><strong>Hubris</strong></td></tr><tr><td style="color:#000000;font-size: 1em;padding:10px 10px 0px 10px;"><strong>A character in an authoritative position becomes so proud of his exceptional qualities that he forms a delusion that he is equal to gods and eventually he tries to defy the gods and his fate.</strong></td></tr><tr><td style="color:#000000;font-size: .9em;padding:10px 10px 10px 10px;"><em>"I’ll be the greatest president for jobs that God ever created."</em></td></tr></table>

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<table style="border: 1px solid black;background-color: #accbff;"><tr><td style="color:#000000;font-size: 1.1em;padding:10px 10px 0px 10px;"><strong>Jingoism</strong></td></tr><tr><td style="color:#000000;font-size: 1em;padding:10px 10px 0px 10px;"><strong>An extreme form of patriotism that often calls for violence towards foreigners and foreign countries.</strong></td></tr><tr><td style="color:#000000;font-size: .9em;padding:10px 10px 10px 10px;"><em>Many leaders on the far right have adopted the phrase American exceptionalism and use it in a jingoistic way to convince their base of the divine righteousness of their cause.</em></td></tr></table>

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<table style="border: 1px solid black;background-color: #accbff;"><tr><td style="color:#000000;font-size: 1.1em;padding:10px 10px 0px 10px;"><strong>Schadenfreude</strong></td></tr><tr><td style="color:#000000;font-size: 1em;padding:10px 10px 0px 10px;"><strong>Pleasure derived from the misfortune of others.</strong></td></tr><tr><td style="color:#000000;font-size: .9em;padding:10px 10px 10px 10px;"><em>"I must admit I experienced a bit of schadenfreude when I heard that my annoying boss had been fired."</em></td></tr></table>

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<table style="border: 1px solid black;background-color: #accbff;"><tr><td style="color:#000000;font-size: 1.1em;padding:10px 10px 0px 10px;"><strong>Semantics</strong></td></tr><tr><td style="color:#000000;font-size: 1em;padding:10px 10px 0px 10px;"><strong>The misleading use of a term with more than one meaning or sense (by glossing over which meaning is intended at a particular time).</strong></td></tr><tr><td style="color:#000000;font-size: .9em;padding:10px 10px 10px 10px;"><em>"There is no such thing as an 'assault weapon'. What the killer used was an 'assault rifle'".</em></td></tr></table>

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